Jaspax: Updated from markdown source

2026-02-08T01:43:21Z

Updated from markdown source

Jaspax: Updated from markdown source

2026-02-08T01:25:04Z

Updated from markdown source

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[[Category:Yivrian]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Yivrian language]]


= Overview =

Yivrian pronouns have distinct nominative and oblique stems. The first and second person have dedicated nominative forms, while the third person uses demonstrative pronouns for nominative reference. There are no genitive pronouns; instead, a set of possessive suffixes is attached directly to the possessed noun (see [[Yivrian nouns]]).

In the oblique cases (ablative, dative, malefactive), the pronouns are formed from the oblique prefix ''ei-'' followed by a consonant that is unique to each person, then the regular case endings and pronominal gender/number suffixes. The person consonants are:

{|
! Person
! Consonant
|-
| First person
| ''v''
|-
| Second person
| ''s''
|-
| Third person animate
| ''l''
|-
| Third person inanimate
| ''t''
|-
| Reflexive
| ''p''
|}


= First person pronouns =


== Nominative ==

The first person nominative pronouns are ''ao'' (singular) and ''ava'' (plural). First person pronouns do not distinguish gender.


== Oblique ==

The oblique stem is ''eiv-'', formed from the oblique prefix ''ei-'' and the first person consonant ''v''. Case endings and number suffixes are applied regularly:

{|
! Case
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| Ablative
| ''eivon''
| ''eivona''
|-
| Dative
| ''eivos''
| ''eivosa''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''rueivos''
| ''rueivosa''
|}


= Second person pronouns =


== Nominative ==

The second person nominative pronouns distinguish gender and number:

<pre> Singular Plural
-------- ------</pre>
Masculine ''tos'' ''tosa'' Feminine ''tose'' ''toso''

These are formed from the prefix ''to-'', a presumed extinct vocative element, combined with the second person oblique consonant ''s'' and the regular pronominal gender/number endings.


== Oblique ==

The oblique stem is ''eis-'', formed from the oblique prefix ''ei-'' and the second person consonant ''s''. Note the haplology in the dative: the expected form *eis-os is reduced to ''eios'', since the ''s'' of the stem and the ''s'' of the case ending collapse by regular consonant haplology.

{|
! Case
! Masculine sg
! Feminine sg
! Masculine pl
! Feminine pl
|-
| Ablative
| ''eison''
| ''eisone'' *
| eisona* *
| eisono*
|-
| Dative
| ''eios''
| ''eiose'' *
| eiosa* *
| eioso*
|-
| Malefactive
| ''rueios''
| ''rueiose'' *
| rueiosa* *
| rueioso*
|}


= Third person =

Yivrian does not have dedicated third person nominative pronouns. Instead, third person reference in the nominative uses demonstrative pronouns (see below).

In non-nominative positions, the third person oblique forms remain available for anaphoric reference. The third person animate oblique stem is ''eil-'', and the third person inanimate oblique stem is ''eit-'':

'''Third person animate:'''

{|
! Case
! Masculine sg
! Feminine sg
! Masculine pl
! Feminine pl
|-
| Ablative
| ''eilon''
| ''eilonei''
| ''eilona''
| ''eilono''
|-
| Dative
| ''eilos''
| ''eilosei''
| ''eilosa''
| ''eiloso''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''ruveilos''
| ''ruveilosei''
| ''ruveilosa''
| ''ruveiloso''
|}

'''Third person inanimate:'''

{|
! Case
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| Ablative
| ''eiton''
| ''eitona''
|-
| Dative
| ''eitos''
| ''eitosa''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''ruveitos''
| ''ruveitosa''
|}


= Demonstrative pronouns =


== Formation ==

The third person nominative is expressed by demonstrative pronouns, formed by combining a determiner prefix with the third person consonants (''l'' for animate, ''t'' for inanimate) and the pronominal gender/number endings. The five determiner prefixes used with personal pronouns are ''ni-'' (proximal), ''na-'' (distal), ''he-'' (anaphoric), ''pe-'' (alterative), and ''pa-'' (indefinite).

The form of the resulting demonstrative depends on the final vowel of the prefix:

* After ''ni-'', the prefix vowel lengthens: ''niila, niita''.
* After ''na-'' and ''pa-'', the clitic consonant geminates after the short ''a'': ''nalla, natta, palla, patta''.
* After ''he-'' and ''pe-'', the prefix vowel and ''i'' form the diphthong ''ei'': ''heila, heita, peila, peita''.

The full set of demonstrative pronouns is:

{|
! Prefix
! Gloss
! Anim msg
! fsg
! mpl
! fpl
! Inan sg
! pl
|-
| ''ni-''
| this
| ''niila''
| ''niile''
| ''niili''
| ''niilo''
| ''niita''
| ''niiti''
|-
| ''na-''
| that
| ''nalla''
| ''nalle''
| ''nalli''
| ''nallo''
| ''natta''
| ''natti''
|-
| ''he-''
| the same
| ''heila''
| ''heile''
| ''heili''
| ''heilo''
| ''heita''
| ''heiti''
|-
| ''pe-''
| another
| ''peila''
| ''peile''
| ''peili''
| ''peilo''
| ''peita''
| ''peiti''
|-
| ''pa-''
| some
| ''palla''
| ''palle''
| ''palli''
| ''pallo''
| ''patta''
| ''patti''
|}

The forms ''palla, patta'' etc. are equivalent in meaning to the indefinite pronouns ''pakel, pakul''. The latter forms (built from the interrogative pronouns) are generally preferred.


== Declension ==

The demonstrative pronouns all end in a vowel and are declined as regular V-class nouns. The genitive is formed with the nominal prefix ''a-'', not with a pronominal suffix.

{|
! Case
! ''niila'' “this (man)”
|-
| Nominative
| ''niila''
|-
| Genitive
| ''aniila''
|-
| Ablative
| ''niilona''
|-
| Dative
| ''niilosa''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''runiilosa''
|}


== Quantifier prefixes ==

The quantifier prefixes may also be used with pronouns to limit their number or sense. Unlike the determiner prefixes, this usage is not restricted to the third person. The four quantifier prefixes are ''ke-'' (all/each), ''kuna-'' (most/several), ''kuva-'' (a little/a few), and ''keiva-'' (none). With the first and second person, the quantifier prefix is attached to the nominative form of the pronoun. With the third person, the prefix combines with the person consonants following the same rules as the demonstrative prefixes.

The following table illustrates the quantifier forms (showing masculine forms for the second and third person):

<pre> *ke-* *kuna-* *kuva-* *keiva-*
(all/each) (most/several) (a little/few) (none)
---------- -------------- -------------- ------</pre>
First sg ''keao'' ''kunao'' ''kuvao'' ''keivao'' First pl ''keava'' ''kunava'' ''kuvava'' ''keivava'' Second m.sg ''ketos'' ''kunatos'' ''kuvatos'' ''keivatos'' Second m.pl ''ketosa'' ''kunatosa'' ''kuvatosa'' ''keivatosa'' Third anim m.sg ''keila'' ''kunalla'' ''kuvalla'' ''keivalla'' Third anim m.pl ''keili'' ''kunalli'' ''kuvalli'' ''keivalli'' Third inan sg ''keita'' ''kunatta'' ''kuvatta'' ''keivatta'' Third inan pl ''keiti'' ''kunatti'' ''kuvatti'' ''keivatti''

In all of these, the pronominal root is inflected as usual, except that the genitive is formed in the regular nominal fashion and not with a pronominal suffix.


= Emphatic pronouns =

Yivrian has a special class of emphatic pronouns that are used when one wishes to give special emphasis to the person involved, equivalent to English “I myself,” “you yourself,” etc. Morphologically, these are formed by applying the possessive suffixes to the nominative forms of the pronouns. Since the possessive suffixes for each person use the same person consonants as the oblique pronouns, the resulting forms are transparently derived.

The first person nominative ''ao'' ends in a vowel, so it takes the V-class possessive pattern (final vowel becomes a diphthong with ''i'', then the possessive suffix): ''ao'' → ''aoiva'' “I myself,” ''ava'' → ''avaivi'' “we ourselves.”

The second person nominatives end in a consonant (''tos'') or a vowel (''tose, tosa, toso''), so the pattern varies. Consonant-final stems take the C-class possessive pattern (epenthetic ''e'' + diphthong + suffix): ''tos'' → ''toseisa'' “you yourself (m.sg.).” Vowel-final stems take the V-class pattern: ''tose'' → ''tosaise'' “you yourself (f.sg.),” ''tosa'' → ''tosaisi'' “you yourselves (m.pl.),” ''toso'' → ''tosoiso'' “you yourselves (f.pl.).”

<pre> Singular Plural
-------- ------</pre>
First person ''aoiva'' ''avaivi'' Second (m) ''toseisa'' ''tosaisi'' Second (f) ''tosaise'' ''tosoiso''

These emphatic pronouns are regular in their case forms. Since they all end in a vowel, they are declined as V-class nouns. For example, the cases of ''aoiva'' are:

{|
! Case
! Form
|-
| Nominative
| ''aoiva''
|-
| Genitive
| ''aaoiva''
|-
| Ablative
| ''aoivona''
|-
| Dative
| ''aoivosa''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''ruaoivosa''
|}


= Reflexive pronouns =

Yivrian has a person-invariant reflexive pronoun that is used when one of the arguments in the sentence is coreferent with the subject. Unlike English, the same pronoun is used regardless of the person and gender of the subject, although the pronoun usually agrees in number with its antecedent. The reflexive does not occur in the nominative, and the genitive is given by the pronominal possessive suffix ''-pa''.

The reflexive uses the oblique consonant ''p'' with the regular oblique prefix ''ei-'':

{|
! Case
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| Ablative
| ''eipon''
| ''eipona''
|-
| Dative
| ''eipos''
| ''eiposa''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''ruveipos''
| ''ruveiposa''
|}

The number agreement of the reflexive pronoun is not entirely strict. It is fairly common to use the singular forms even when referring to a plural subject, although the reverse does not occur.


= Interrogative pronouns =

The Yivrian interrogative pronouns and related interrogative forms are:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''kel''
| who
|-
| ''kul''
| what
|-
| ''kai''
| where
|-
| ''ku''
| when
|-
| ''kulai''
| why
|-
| ''keiton''
| how (by what means)
|-
| ''kulon''
| how (in what manner)
|-
| ''kotil''
| what sort, what kind
|-
| ''koton''
| in what manner
|-
| ''kosil''
| how many
|-
| ''koson''
| how much, to what extent
|}

The forms ''kel'' and ''kul'' are historically built from the interrogative morpheme ''k-'' and the old demonstrative forms. They follow the declension of those demonstratives in the oblique cases except in the genitive, where they take a regular nominal formation. They do not inflect for number or gender, even when the gender or number of the questioned element may be known:

<pre> *kul* "what" *kel* "who"
------------ -----------</pre>
Nominative ''kul'' ''kel'' Genitive ''akul'' ''akel'' Ablative ''keiton'' ''keilon'' Dative ''keitos'' ''keilos'' Malefactive ''rukeitos'' ''rukeilos''

From this chart, one can see that “what” in the ablative case gives the form glossed as “how (by what means)” above.

The other question forms are either invariable (''kai, ku, kulai'') or are regular for their classes (''kulon, kotil, kosil''). For the declension of ''kulon, kotil'', and ''kosil'', see [[Yivrian adjectives]].


= Relative pronouns =


== Adjunct relatives ==

Yivrian distinguishes ''adjunct relatives'' from ''independent relatives'' according to the functions played by the phrases that they compose. The adjunct relatives create what in English we would regard as standard relative clauses – those that modify another element in the sentence which is overtly expressed. There are three adjunct relatives in Yivrian:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''keth''
| that, which, who
|-
| ''kai''
| where
|-
| ''ku''
| when
|}

The adverbs ''kai'' and ''ku'' are invariable. ''Keth'', on the other hand, is declined as a U-class noun except in the genitive, where it is expressed by the pronominal suffix ''-ka''. It does not inflect for gender or number:

{|
! Case
! Form
|-
| Nominative
| ''keth''
|-
| Genitive
| ''(-ka)''
|-
| Ablative
| ''kathun''
|-
| Dative
| ''kathus''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''rukathus''
|}


== Independent relatives ==

Yivrian has a larger number of independent relatives, which create clauses that have no overt antecedent:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''katha''
| who, what, which
|-
| ''kaiya''
| where
|-
| ''kua''
| when
|-
| ''kulaiya''
| why
|}

All of these are invariable except for ''katha'', which is declined as a regular V-class noun.


== Compound relatives ==

The independent relatives may be used with the determiner prefixes ''he-'', ''pe-'', and ''pa-'' to form a special class of compound relatives:

<pre> *he-* (same) *pe-* (different) *pa-* (indefinite)
------------ ----------------- ------------------</pre>
who/what ''hekatha'' ''pekatha'' ''pakatha'' where ''hekaiya'' ''pekaiya'' ''pakaiya'' when ''hekua'' ''pekua'' ''pakua'' why ''hekulaiya'' ''pekulaiya'' ''pakulaiya''

The ''he-'' forms mean “the same (one/place/time/reason) that,” the ''pe-'' forms mean “a different (one/place/time/reason) than,” and the ''pa-'' forms are universal relatives meaning “whoever, wherever, whenever, for whatever reason.”


= Inclusive and exclusive pronouns =


== Inclusive pronouns ==

The inclusive pronouns indicate “all” or “every” of their attribute:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''kal''
| everything, all
|-
| ''kalel''
| everyone
|-
| ''kalku''
| always
|-
| ''kalkai''
| everywhere
|}

''Kalku'' and ''kalkai'' are invariable. ''Kal'' is declined as a regular U-class noun. ''Kalel'' is declined like ''kel'' and ''kul'', with the ending ''-el'' following the pronominal declension pattern:

{|
! Case
! Form
|-
| Nominative
| ''kalel''
|-
| Genitive
| ''akalel''
|-
| Ablative
| ''kaleilon''
|-
| Dative
| ''kaleilos''
|-
| Malefactive
| ''rukaleilos''
|}


== Exclusive pronouns ==

The exclusive pronouns indicate the opposite of the inclusive pronouns:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''kav''
| nothing
|-
| ''kavel''
| nobody
|-
| ''kuva''
| never
|-
| ''kaiva''
| nowhere
|-
| ''kavulon''
| in no way/manner, not at all
|-
| ''kaveiton''
| by no means
|-
| ''kulaiva''
| for no reason
|}

''Kav'' is declined as a regular U-class noun. ''Kavel'' declines its ending as the pronominal ''-el'' with a regularly formed genitive in place of a pronominal suffix.


= Indefinite pronouns =

There is a class of indefinite pronouns formed by applying the indefinite prefix ''pa-'' to the interrogatives. These are preferred to equivalent compounds made from personal pronouns:

{|
! Yivrian
! Gloss
|-
| ''pakel''
| someone
|-
| ''pakul''
| something
|-
| ''pakai''
| somewhere
|-
| ''paku''
| sometime
|-
| ''pakulai''
| for some reason
|-
| ''pakeiton''
| by some means
|-
| ''pakulon''
| in some manner
|}


= Summary chart =

The following chart summarizes the non-personal pronoun system, showing the relationships between the various classes:

{|
! Meaning
! Adj. relative
! Ind. relative
! Inclusive
! Exclusive
! Interrogative
! Indefinite
|-
| what
| ''keth''
| ''katha''
| ''kal''
| ''kav''
| ''kul''
| ''pakul''
|-
| who
| ''keth''
| ''katha''
| ''kalel''
| ''kavel''
| ''kel''
| ''pakel''
|-
| when
| ''ku''
| ''kua''
| ''kalku''
| ''kuva''
| ''ku''
| ''paku''
|-
| where
| ''kai''
| ''kaiya''
| ''kalkai''
| ''kaiva''
| ''kai''
| ''pakai''
|-
| why
|
| ''kulaiya''
|
| ''kulaiva''
| ''kulai''
| ''pakulai''
|}

''How (by what means)'' = ''what'' in the ablative case. ''How (in what manner)'' = ''what'' with adverbial endings.

Yivrian pronouns - Revision history

Jaspax: Updated from markdown source

Jaspax: Updated from markdown source