Difference between revisions of "Praseo verbs"

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[[Category:Prasa]][[Category:Praseo language]]
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% vim: ft=markdown fo=
  
The Praseo verb is highly inflected for tense, aspect, evidentiality, and focus, but it does not have any agreement for person, number, or any other categories. The core inflectional paradigm of the verb is supplemented by a set of particles which indicate mood and politeness.
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[[Category:Prasa]]
 +
[[Category:Praseo language]]
  
Throughout this discussion we will use the verb ''śeśya'' "to crush, to grind" as paradigmatic.
+
The Praseo verb is highly inflected for tense, aspect, evidentiality, and focus, but it does not
 +
have any agreement for person, number, or any other categories. The core inflectional
 +
paradigm of the verb is supplemented by a set of particles which indicate mood and
 +
politeness.
  
= Morphology and semantics of the verb stem =
+
Throughout this discussion we will use the verb *śeśya* "to crush, to grind" as paradigmatic.
  
Most Praseo verbs share a stem with a corresponding noun, and by convention the verb is described as being derived from the noun (though in many cases the direction of derivation is arguably in the other direction, or is arbitrary). All noun stems end with a vowel which indicates the noun class (see [[Praseo nouns]]), and this vowel is dropped to provide the ''root stem'' from which verbs are derived.
+
# Morphology and semantics of the verb stem
  
== Active verbs, stative verbs, and telicity ==
+
Most Praseo verbs share a stem with a corresponding noun, and by convention the verb is
 +
described as being derived from the noun (though in many cases the direction of derivation
 +
is arguably in the other direction, or is arbitrary). All noun stems end with a vowel which
 +
indicates the noun class (see [[Praseo nouns]]), and this vowel is dropped to provide the
 +
*root stem* from which verbs are derived.
  
Praseo verbs are divided into ''active'' verbs and ''stative'' verbs. This is a lexical distinction which is not reflected anywhere in the form of the verb stem or its inflection, but it may control which forms of the verb occur and the cases that it governs. Note that the distinction between active and stative verbs is a ''lexical'' difference; the semantics of the verb in question may suggest which group it should belong to, but there are verbs which are arbitrarily assigned to one or the other.
+
## Active verbs, stative verbs, and telicity
  
''Stative'' verbs are those verbs which indicate a state which the subject is in. Many of these verbs correspond to things which would be adjectives in English. This includes verbs such as ''yaoya'' "to be blue" and ''śeomya'' "to sleep, to be asleep". Notably, verbs which indicate emotions are always considered stative verbs, and these verbs may be transitive. However, the object of a transitive stative verb occurs in the dative rather than the accusative.
+
Praseo verbs are divided into *active* verbs and *stative* verbs. This is a lexical
 +
distinction which is not reflected anywhere in the form of the verb stem or its inflection,
 +
but it may control which forms of the verb occur and the cases that it governs. Note that
 +
the distinction between active and stative verbs is a *lexical* difference; the semantics of
 +
the verb in question may suggest which group it should belong to, but there are verbs which
 +
are arbitrarily assigned to one or the other.
  
<pre>Dusu oalú    solya.
+
*Stative* verbs are those verbs which indicate a state which the subject is in. Many of
Bird wolf-DAT fears.</pre>
+
these verbs correspond to things which would be adjectives in English. This includes verbs
''The bird is afraid of the wolf.''
+
such as *yaoya* "to be blue" and *śeomya* "to sleep, to be asleep". Notably, verbs which
 +
indicate emotions are always considered stative verbs, and these verbs may be transitive.
 +
However, the object of a transitive stative verb occurs in the dative rather than the
 +
accusative.
  
Additionally, stative verbs do not occur in some aspects and use a different ending for causatives.
+
    Dusu oalú    solya.
 +
    Bird wolf-DAT fears.
 +
*The bird is afraid of the wolf.*
  
''Active'' verbs are those verbs which indicate an action which the subject undertakes. Active verbs may be transitive or intransitive, and they don't necessarily imply motion or action, but may include any action which is conceived of as an event rather than a state. Typical active verbs are ''śeśya'' &quot;to grind&quot; and ''tsipya'' &quot;to vomit&quot;.
+
Additionally, stative verbs do not occur in some aspects and use a different ending for
 +
causatives.
  
Active verbs are further subdivided into ''telic'' and ''atelic'' verbs. The ''telic'' verbs are those which are conceived as having a duration with a beginning, middle, and end, while ''atelic'' verbs are considered unitary and have no internal structure. A typical telic verb is ''śenya'' &quot;to stay, remain,&quot; while a common atelic verb is ''ašya'' &quot;to fall&quot;. Atelic verbs are distinguished by the fact that they don't occur in the perfective tense, but only in the imperfective.
+
*Active* verbs are those verbs which indicate an action which the subject undertakes. Active
 +
verbs may be transitive or intransitive, and they don't necessarily imply motion or action,
 +
but may include any action which is conceived of as an event rather than a state.  Typical
 +
active verbs are *śeśya* "to grind" and *tsipya* "to vomit".
  
== Aspectual endings ==
+
Active verbs are further subdivided into *telic* and *atelic* verbs. The *telic* verbs are
 +
those which are conceived as having a duration with a beginning, middle, and end, while
 +
*atelic* verbs are considered unitary and have no internal structure. A typical telic verb
 +
is *śenya* "to stay, remain," while a common atelic verb is *ašya* "to fall". Atelic verbs
 +
are distinguished by the fact that they don't occur in the perfective tense, but only in the
 +
imperfective.
  
There are five different endings which may be attached to the root stem, which which express four different ''aspects'' of the verb.
+
## Aspectual endings
  
The '''simple''' aspect of the verb is formed by adding ''-ya'' to the root stem. This ending triggers palatalization of stem-final velars and affrication of stem-final dentals (see [[Praseo phonology#Palatalization]] and [[Praseo phonology#Affrication]]).
+
There are five different endings which may be attached to the root stem, which which express
 +
four different *aspects* of the verb.
  
{|
+
The **simple** aspect of the verb is formed by adding *-ya* to the root stem. This ending
!Noun form
+
triggers palatalization of stem-final velars and affrication of stem-final dentals (see
!Root stem
+
[[Praseo phonology#Palatalization]] and [[Praseo phonology#Affrication]]).
!Simple verb form
 
|-
 
|śutta
 
|śutt-
 
|śuttsya
 
|-
 
|zaka
 
|zak-
 
|začya
 
|-
 
|tsipa
 
|tsip-
 
|tsipya
 
|}
 
  
The simple aspect refers to a single instance of an action, without reference to its telicity, distribution, or frequency. It is the most general and most commonly used aspect.
+
Noun form      Root stem      Simple verb form
 +
----------      ----------      -----------------
 +
śutta          śutt-          śuttsya
 +
zaka            zak-            začya
 +
tsipa          tsip-          tsipya
  
The '''causative active''' aspect is formed by adding ''-ãya'' to the root stem. This aspectual ending is only used with active verbs.
+
The simple aspect refers to a single instance of an action, without reference to its
 +
telicity, distribution, or frequency. It is the most general and most commonly used aspect.
  
{|
+
The **causative active** aspect is formed by adding *-ãya* to the root stem. This aspectual ending is
!Root stem
+
only used with active verbs.
!Causative verb form
 
|-
 
|śutt-
 
|śuttãya
 
|-
 
|zak-
 
|zakãya
 
|-
 
|tsip-
 
|tsipãya
 
|}
 
  
The causative indicates that the subject caused the object to do the action indicated by the stem. This is a valency-increasing aspect: verbs which are intransitive in the simple or habitual aspects are transitive in the causative aspect, and transitives become ditransitives:
+
Root stem       Causative verb form
 +
----------      -----------------
 +
śutt-          śuttãya
 +
zak-            zakãya
 +
tsip-          tsipãya
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
+
The causative indicates that the subject caused the object to do the action indicated by the
I    corn-ACC grind.</pre>
+
stem. This is a valency-increasing aspect: verbs which are intransitive in the simple or
''I grind corn.''
+
habitual aspects are transitive in the causative aspect, and transitives become
 +
ditransitives:
  
<pre>Nioa yirẽoa  ma hapẽo    śeśãya.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
I   boy-ACC   corn-ACC grind-CAUSE.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC grind.
''I make the boy grind corn.''
+
*I grind corn.*
  
Note that in the second example above there are two accusative arguments, the second of which is preceded by ''ma''. This is discussed in more detail in [[Praseo syntax]]. Additionally, the causative active form of a verb is always considered atelic (instantaneous, event-oriented) even if the simple form of the verb is considered telic.
+
    Nioa yirẽoa  ma hapẽo    śeśãya.
 +
    I    boy-ACC    corn-ACC grind-CAUSE.
 +
*I make the boy grind corn.*
  
The '''causative stative''' aspect is formed by adding ''-aša'' to the verb stem. This aspectual ending is only used with stative verbs, but it is otherwise identical in meaning to the causative active aspect.
+
Note that in the second example above there are two accusative arguments, the second of
 +
which is preceded by *ma*. This is discussed in more detail in [[Praseo syntax]].
 +
Additionally, the causative active form of a verb is always considered atelic
 +
(instantaneous, event-oriented) even if the simple form of the verb is considered telic.
  
{|
+
The **causative stative** aspect is formed by adding *-aša* to the verb stem. This aspectual
!Root stem
+
ending is only used with stative verbs, but it is otherwise identical in meaning to the
!Causative verb form
+
causative active aspect.
|-
+
 
|yao-
+
Root stem       Causative verb form
|yaoša
+
----------      -----------------
|-
+
yao-           yaoša
|śeom-
+
śeom-           śeomaša
|śeomaša
 
|}
 
  
 
The causative aspect of the stative verb is treated as an active atelic verb.
 
The causative aspect of the stative verb is treated as an active atelic verb.
  
The '''habitual''' aspect of the verb is formed by adding ''-oa'' to the root stem of an active verb. Only active verbs have a habitual aspect, and the habitual form of the verb is necessarily telic. This ending triggers affrication of stem-final dentals.
+
The **habitual** aspect of the verb is formed by adding *-oa* to the root stem of an active
 +
verb. Only active verbs have a habitual aspect, and the habitual form of the verb is
 +
necessarily telic. This ending triggers affrication of stem-final dentals.
  
{|
+
Root stem       Habitual verb form
!Root stem
+
----------      -----------------
!Habitual verb form
+
śutt-           śuttsoa
|-
+
zak-           zakoa
|śutt-
+
tsip-           tsipoa
|śuttsoa
 
|-
 
|zak-
 
|zakoa
 
|-
 
|tsip-
 
|tsipoa
 
|}
 
  
The habitual aspect refers to an action which is repeated, widely distributed, or regular. In the perfective tense it has a meaning similar to the English phrase &quot;used to&quot;.
+
The habitual aspect refers to an action which is repeated, widely distributed, or regular.
 +
In the perfective tense it has a meaning similar to the English phrase "used to".
  
The '''habitual causative''' aspect is formed by adding ''-ača'' to the root stem of the verb.
+
The **habitual causative** aspect is formed by adding *-ača* to the root stem of the verb.
  
{|
+
Root stem       Habitual causative verb form
!Root stem
+
----------      -----------------
!Habitual causative verb form
+
śutt-           śuttača
|-
+
zak-           zakača
|śutt-
+
tsip-           tsipača
|śuttača
 
|-
 
|zak-
 
|zakača
 
|-
 
|tsip-
 
|tsipača
 
|}
 
  
The meaning of the habitual causative is a straightforward conjunction of the habitual and causative aspects, and it indicates that someone causes someone else to undertake a habitual or regular action. It is treated as a telic verb, and like the causative active it increases the valency of the verb.
+
The meaning of the habitual causative is a straightforward conjunction of the habitual and
 +
causative aspects, and it indicates that someone causes someone else to undertake a habitual
 +
or regular action. It is treated as a telic verb, and like the causative active it increases
 +
the valency of the verb.
  
= Tense and evidentiality =
+
# Tense and evidentiality
  
The Praseo categories of ''tense'' and ''evidentiality'' are always conflated into a single portmanteau morpheme. Praseo distinguishes three tenses: present, preterite, and perfective. It also distinguishes three kinds of evidentiality: affirmative, negative, and reported. These endings do not vary based on the aspect of the verb. The endings for these categories are indicated in the following table:
+
The Praseo categories of *tense* and *evidentiality* are always conflated into a single
 +
portmanteau morpheme. Praseo distinguishes three tenses: present, preterite, and perfective.
 +
It also distinguishes three kinds of evidentiality: affirmative, negative, and reported.
 +
These endings do not vary based on the aspect of the verb. The endings for these categories
 +
are indicated in the following table:
  
{|
+
Tense           Affirmative     Negative       Reported
!Tense
+
------          ------------    ---------      ---------
!Affirmative
+
*Present*      śeśya           śeśyatsi       śeśyasa
!Negative
+
*Preterite*    śeśyalu         śeśyara         śeśyao
!Reported
+
*Perfective*    śeśyaśu         śeśyatsiśu     śeśyaśao
|-
 
|''Present''
 
|śeśya
 
|śeśyatsi
 
|śeśyasa
 
|-
 
|''Preterite''
 
|śeśyalu
 
|śeśyara
 
|śeśyao
 
|-
 
|''Perfective''
 
|śeśyaśu
 
|śeśyatsiśu
 
|śeśyaśao
 
|}
 
  
== Meaning and usage of the tenses ==
+
## Meaning and usage of the tenses
  
The semantic distinctions between the tenses are do not align neatly with English categories. The ''present'' tense is the simplest to understand: it is used to indicate all sorts of non-past actions, including future actions and actions which began in the past and are not complete in the present. In the simple aspect, it most closely correlates to the English present progressive.
+
The semantic distinctions between the tenses are do not align neatly with English
 +
categories. The *present* tense is the simplest to understand: it is used to indicate all
 +
sorts of non-past actions, including future actions and actions which began in the past and
 +
are not complete in the present. In the simple aspect, it most closely correlates to the
 +
English present progressive.
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
I    corn-ACC crush-PRES.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush-PRES.
''I am crushing the corn.''
+
*I am crushing the corn.*
  
The ''preterite'' tense is used for completed past actions when considered a unitary whole. This is used for actions in the distant past whose duration or internal structure is irrelevant, as well as for all atelic past-tense verbs. It corresponds roughly to the English simple past (&quot;I went&quot;) or past perfect (&quot;I had gone&quot;).
+
The *preterite* tense is used for completed past actions when considered a unitary whole.
 +
This is used for actions in the distant past whose duration or internal structure is
 +
irrelevant, as well as for all atelic past-tense verbs. It corresponds roughly to the
 +
English simple past ("I went") or past perfect ("I had gone").
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    nači      śeśyalu.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    nači      śeśyalu.
I    corn-ACC yesterday crush-PRET.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC yesterday crush-PRET.
''I crushed the corn yesterday.''
+
*I crushed the corn yesterday.*
  
The ''perfective'' tense is used for actions which are completed at the present time, but which have a relevant duration in the past. This corresponds roughly to the English present perfect (&quot;I have gone&quot;) or past progressive (&quot;I was going&quot;). When used in isolation, it usually indicates an action which has just completed. However, when used in contrast with a verb in the preterite tense, the perfective tense may indicate simultaneity in a manner similar to the English past progressive (&quot;I was walking (perfective) and a branch fell (preterite)&quot;).
+
The *perfective* tense is used for actions which are completed at the present time, but
 +
which have a relevant duration in the past. This corresponds roughly to the English present
 +
perfect ("I have gone") or past progressive ("I was going"). When used in isolation, it
 +
usually indicates an action which has just completed. However, when used in contrast with a
 +
verb in the preterite tense, the perfective tense may indicate simultaneity in a manner
 +
similar to the English past progressive ("I was walking (perfective) and a branch fell
 +
(preterite)").
  
Atelic verbs do not occur in the perfective tense; all non-present atelic verbs use the preterite tense.
+
Atelic verbs do not occur in the perfective tense; all non-present atelic verbs use the
 +
preterite tense.
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśyaśu.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśyaśu.
I    corn-ACC crush-PERF.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush-PERF.
''I have crushed the corn.'' or ''I have finished crushing the corn.''
+
*I have crushed the corn.* or *I have finished crushing the corn.*
  
== Evidentiality ==
+
## Evidentiality
  
The ''affirmative'' and ''negative'' categories are used for information which the speaker personally attests to. This includes all events to which the speaker is a direct witness, but also information which the speaker considers to be beyond doubt. For example, past events which have entered into common knowledge are discussed in the past affirmative, regardless of whether the speaker was a witness to those events.
+
The *affirmative* and *negative* categories are used for information which the speaker
 +
personally attests to. This includes all events to which the speaker is a direct witness,
 +
but also information which the speaker considers to be beyond doubt. For example, past
 +
events which have entered into common knowledge are discussed in the past affirmative,
 +
regardless of whether the speaker was a witness to those events.
  
The ''reported'' category indicates that the speaker is giving information which is hearsay, unclear, or uncertain. The use of the reported form indicates that the speaker is not able to personally attest to the information the information, and that there may be doubt as to whether the statement is actually true.
+
The *reported* category indicates that the speaker is giving information which is hearsay,
 +
unclear, or uncertain. The use of the reported form indicates that the speaker is not able
 +
to personally attest to the information the information, and that there may be doubt as to
 +
whether the statement is actually true.
  
There are complicated social dynamics involved in choosing to relate hearsay in the reported or the affirmative/negative forms. When first relating a piece of second-hand news to a new listener, Praseo speakers will always use the reported form and avoid the affirmative. The presence of a second corroborating source will sometimes suffice to give the speakers confidence to use the affirmative form, but if a third speaker can be found who corroborates the information, then all speakers will switch to the affirmative rather than the reported form. Failing to switch to the affirmative form when the other speakers switch is seen as casting doubt on their truthfulness and may provoke offense. Conversely, switching to the affirmative form too quickly may indicate to others that you are a hasty and untrustworthy person.
+
There are complicated social dynamics involved in choosing to relate hearsay in the reported
 +
or the affirmative/negative forms. When first relating a piece of second-hand news to a new
 +
listener, Praseo speakers will always use the reported form and avoid the affirmative. The
 +
presence of a second corroborating source will sometimes suffice to give the speakers
 +
confidence to use the affirmative form, but if a third speaker can be found who corroborates
 +
the information, then all speakers will switch to the affirmative rather than the reported
 +
form. Failing to switch to the affirmative form when the other speakers switch is seen as
 +
casting doubt on their truthfulness and may provoke offense. Conversely, switching to the
 +
affirmative form too quickly may indicate to others that you are a hasty and untrustworthy
 +
person.
  
Non-native speakers of Praseo are generally encouraged to use the reported form of the verb to discuss events which they don't have direct knowledge of, and to follow the lead of the native Praseo speakers when they switch to the affirmative/negative forms.
+
Non-native speakers of Praseo are generally encouraged to use the reported form of the verb
 +
to discuss events which they don't have direct knowledge of, and to follow the lead of the
 +
native Praseo speakers when they switch to the affirmative/negative forms.
  
= Focus marking =
+
# Focus marking
  
Praseo word order is very free, and focus is indicated by moving the focused element to the beginning of the utterance. Nouns do not receive any special marking when they're focused this way, but verbs have an alternation in the vowel of the verbal ending. Generally speaking, the ''-a'' of the aspectual ending is replaced with ''-u'', and this vowel is preserved when other endings are added.
+
Praseo word order is very free, and focus is indicated by moving the focused element to the
 +
beginning of the utterance. Nouns do not receive any special marking when they're focused
 +
this way, but verbs have an alternation in the vowel of the verbal ending. Generally
 +
speaking, the *-a* of the aspectual ending is replaced with *-u*, and this vowel is preserved
 +
when other endings are added.
  
 
For an active verb:
 
For an active verb:
  
{|
+
Aspect             Unfocused   Focused
!Aspect
+
-------            ----------  --------
!Unfocused
+
Simple             śeśya       śeśyu
!Focused
+
Causative           śeśãya     śeśãyu
|-
+
Habitual           śeśoa       śeśu
|Simple
+
Habitual causative śeśača     śeśaču
|śeśya
 
|śeśyu
 
|-
 
|Causative
 
|śeśãya
 
|śeśãyu
 
|-
 
|Habitual
 
|śeśoa
 
|śeśu
 
|-
 
|Habitual causative
 
|śeśača
 
|śeśaču
 
|}
 
  
Note that the habitual ending ''-oa'' here is slightly irregular, as it simplifies to just ''-u'' when focused.
+
Note that the habitual ending *-oa* here is slightly irregular, as it simplifies to just
 +
*-u* when focused.
  
 
For a stative verb:
 
For a stative verb:
  
{|
+
Aspect             Unfocused   Focused
!Aspect
+
-------            ----------  --------
!Unfocused
+
Simple             śeomya     śeomyu
!Focused
+
Causative           śeomaša     śeomašu
|-
 
|Simple
 
|śeomya
 
|śeomyu
 
|-
 
|Causative
 
|śeomaša
 
|śeomašu
 
|}
 
  
The vowel ''-u'' is also used when additional tense or evidentiality suffixes are added to a focused verb. The following chart illustrates, and may be contrasted with the chart above showing the unfocused tense and evidentiality markers.
+
The vowel *-u* is also used when additional tense or evidentiality suffixes are added to a
 +
focused verb. The following chart illustrates, and may be contrasted with the chart above
 +
showing the unfocused tense and evidentiality markers.
  
{|
+
Tense           Affirmative     Negative       Reported
!Tense
+
------          ------------    ---------      ---------
!Affirmative
+
*Present*      śeśyu           śeśyutsi       śeśyusa
!Negative
+
*Preterite*    śeśyulu         śeśyura         śeśyu
!Reported
+
*Perfective*    śeśyuśu         śeśyutsiśu     śeśyuśao
|-
 
|''Present''
 
|śeśyu
 
|śeśyutsi
 
|śeśyusa
 
|-
 
|''Preterite''
 
|śeśyulu
 
|śeśyura
 
|śeśyu
 
|-
 
|''Perfective''
 
|śeśyuśu
 
|śeśyutsiśu
 
|śeśyuśao
 
|}
 
  
= Object suffixes =
+
# Object suffixes
  
Pronominal direct objects are expressed by a set of suffixes which attach to the end of the verb. These suffixes are always the last element of the verbal complex (excepting the modal particles discussed below, which are considered separate words).
+
Pronominal direct objects are expressed by a set of suffixes which attach to the end of the
 +
verb. These suffixes are always the last element of the verbal complex (excepting the modal
 +
particles discussed below, which are considered separate words).
  
Illustrating with the root ''śeśya'':
+
Illustrating with the root *śeśya*:
  
{|
+
Meaning                 Form
!Meaning
+
--------                -----
!Form
+
crushes me             śeśyaoa
|-
+
crushes us             śeśyei
|crushes me
+
crushes you (m.sg.)     śeśyaśa
|śeśyaoa
+
crushes you (m.pl.)     śeśyaśi
|-
+
crushes you (f.sg.)     śeśyaśe
|crushes us
+
crushes you (f.pl.)     śeśyaśa
|śeśyei
+
crushes him             śeśyala
|-
+
crushes them (m.pl.)   śeśyali
|crushes you (m.sg.)
+
crushes her             śeśyale
|śeśyaśa
+
crushes them (f.pl.)   śeśyala
|-
+
crushes it             śeśyatsu
|crushes you (m.pl.)
+
crushes them (inan.)   śeśyatsi
|śeśyaśi
 
|-
 
|crushes you (f.sg.)
 
|śeśyaśe
 
|-
 
|crushes you (f.pl.)
 
|śeśyaśa
 
|-
 
|crushes him
 
|śeśyala
 
|-
 
|crushes them (m.pl.)
 
|śeśyali
 
|-
 
|crushes her
 
|śeśyale
 
|-
 
|crushes them (f.pl.)
 
|śeśyala
 
|-
 
|crushes it
 
|śeśyatsu
 
|-
 
|crushes them (inan.)
 
|śeśyatsi
 
|}
 
  
 
See also [[Praseo pronouns#Accusative]].
 
See also [[Praseo pronouns#Accusative]].
  
= Modal particles =
+
# Modal particles
  
Various categories of mood are indicated by utterance-final enclitics known as ''modal particles''. The modal particles are not considered part of the main verb complex, because they don't necessarily adhere directly to the verb. In the event that the verb is moved to the beginning of the sentence for focus purposes, the modal particle remains utterance-final and cliticizes on the preceding word. The modal particles are:
+
Various categories of mood are indicated by utterance-final enclitics known as *modal
 +
particles*. The modal particles are not considered part of the main verb complex, because
 +
they don't necessarily adhere directly to the verb. In the event that the verb is moved to
 +
the beginning of the sentence for focus purposes, the modal particle remains utterance-final
 +
and cliticizes on the preceding word. The modal particles are:
  
''ka'' - '''interrogative'''. Simple yes-no questions are indicated by adding ''ka'' to the end of the utterance. Questions which include overt question words don't require ''ka'', but ''ka'' may optionally be added for clarity, especially if the question is complex.
+
*ka* - **interrogative**. Simple yes-no questions are indicated by adding *ka* to the end of
 +
the utterance. Questions which include overt question words don't require *ka*, but *ka* may
 +
optionally be added for clarity, especially if the question is complex.
  
<pre>Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka?
+
    Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka?
You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT?</pre>
+
    You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT?
''Have you crushed the corn?''
+
*Have you crushed the corn?*
  
''ta'' - '''imperative'''. Adding ''ta'' to the end of an utterance with a second-person subject acts as an ordinary imperative equivalent to the English imperative. With first or third-person subjects, the meaning is hortative, e.g. &quot;I must do this&quot; or &quot;I should do this.&quot;
+
*ta* - **imperative**. Adding *ta* to the end of an utterance with a second-person subject
 +
acts as an ordinary imperative equivalent to the English imperative. With first or
 +
third-person subjects, the meaning is hortative, e.g. "I must do this" or "I should do this."
  
<pre>Niśa hapẽo    śeśya ta!
+
    Niśa hapẽo    śeśya ta!
You  corn-ACC crush IMP!</pre>
+
    You  corn-ACC crush IMP!
''Crush the corn!''
+
*Crush the corn!*
  
''ri'' - '''conditional'''. Utterance-final ''ri'' is used to indicate hypothetical or counterfactual statements.
+
*ri* - **conditional**. Utterance-final *ri* is used to indicate hypothetical or
 +
counterfactual statements.
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ri.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ri.
I    corn-ACC crush COND.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush COND.
''I would crush the corn.''
+
*I would crush the corn.*
  
''zu'' - '''optative'''. The particle ''zu'' indicates the optative, for statements which the speaker desires or wishes for.
+
*zu* - **optative**. The particle *zu* indicates the optative, for statements which the
 +
speaker desires or wishes for.
  
<pre>Niśa hapẽo    śeśya zu.
+
    Niśa hapẽo    śeśya zu.
You  corn-ACC crush OPT.</pre>
+
    You  corn-ACC crush OPT.
''I would like you to crush the corn.''
+
*I would like you to crush the corn.*
  
''ma'' - '''potential'''. The particle ''ma'' indicates actions which are possible, potential, or allowed.
+
*ma* - **potential**. The particle *ma* indicates actions which are possible, potential, or
 +
allowed.
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ma.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ma.
I    corn-ACC crush POT.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush POT.
''I could crush the corn.''
+
*I could crush the corn.*
  
The modal particles are frequently combined to create subtler nuances of meaning. The order of the particles in this situation is not strictly specified, but there is a strong tendency for ''ka'' and ''ta'' to come first if they occur.
+
The modal particles are frequently combined to create subtler nuances of meaning. The order
 +
of the particles in this situation is not strictly specified, but there is a strong tendency
 +
for *ka* and *ta* to come first if they occur.  
  
The most common such combination is ''ka'', the interrogative, plus any of the others.
+
The most common such combination is *ka*, the interrogative, plus any of the others.
  
<pre>Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka  ri?
+
    Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka  ri?
You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT COND.</pre>
+
    You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT COND.
''Would you have crushed the corn?''
+
*Would you have crushed the corn?*
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ka  ta?
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ka  ta?
I    corn-ACC crush INT IMP.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush INT IMP.
''Do I have to crush the corn?''
+
*Do I have to crush the corn?*
  
 
Combinations of three or more are also possible.
 
Combinations of three or more are also possible.
  
<pre>Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ma  ri  zu.
+
    Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ma  ri  zu.
You  corn-ACC crush-PERF POT COND OPT.</pre>
+
    You  corn-ACC crush-PERF POT COND OPT.
''If only you had been able to crush the corn.''
+
*If only you had been able to crush the corn.*
 
+
   
= Participles =
+
# Participles
  
Praseo does not have a separate lexical category for adjectives. Instead, most of the functions which we associate with adjectives are filled by participles of the verb. There are three core participles: the active participle, the passive participle, and the stative participle, which also combine with the aspectual suffixes.
+
Praseo does not have a separate lexical category for adjectives. Instead, most of the
 +
functions which we associate with adjectives are filled by participles of the verb. There
 +
are three core participles: the active participle, the passive participle, and the stative
 +
participle, which also combine with the aspectual suffixes.
  
== Active and passive participles ==
+
## Active and passive participles
  
Active (as opposed to stative) verbs all have an ''active'' participle, while transitive verbs also have a ''passive'' participle. These participles exist for all of the aspects of the active verb.
+
Active (as opposed to stative) verbs all have an *active* participle, while transitive verbs
 +
also have a *passive* participle. These participles exist for all of the aspects of the
 +
active verb.
  
{|
+
Aspect             Finite form     Active participle                       Passive participle
!Aspect
+
-------            ------------    ------------------                      -------------------
!Finite form
+
Simple             śeśya           śeśẽ ("crushing, who crushes")         śeśesu ("crushed, which is crushed")
!Active participle
+
Causative active   śeśãya         śeśẽi ("who causes to crush")           śeśẽisu ("who is caused to crush")
!Passive participle
+
Habitual           śeśoa           śeśoẽ ("who always crushes")           śeśoesu ("which is always crushed")
|-
+
Habitual causative śeśača         śeśačẽ ("who always causes to crush")   śeśačesu ("who is always caused to crush")
|Simple
 
|śeśya
 
|śeśẽ (&quot;crushing, who crushes&quot;)
 
|śeśesu (&quot;crushed, which is crushed&quot;)
 
|-
 
|Causative active
 
|śeśãya
 
|śeśẽi (&quot;who causes to crush&quot;)
 
|śeśẽisu (&quot;who is caused to crush&quot;)
 
|-
 
|Habitual
 
|śeśoa
 
|śeśoẽ (&quot;who always crushes&quot;)
 
|śeśoesu (&quot;which is always crushed&quot;)
 
|-
 
|Habitual causative
 
|śeśača
 
|śeśačẽ (&quot;who always causes to crush&quot;)
 
|śeśačesu (&quot;who is always caused to crush&quot;)
 
|}
 
  
The participles are not marked for tense or mood. Rather, they take on the tense and mood of the main verb in the sentence. Objects of participles are marked for case in the usual way, and usually come between the noun head (the subject of the participle) and the participle itself.
+
The participles are not marked for tense or mood. Rather, they take on the tense and mood of
 +
the main verb in the sentence. Objects of participles are marked for case in the usual way,
 +
and usually come between the noun head (the subject of the participle) and the participle
 +
itself.
  
<pre>Yira hapẽo    śeśẽ      śeomya ta.
+
    Yira hapẽo    śeśẽ      śeomya ta.
Boy  corn-ACC crush-PART sleep  IMP.</pre>
+
    Boy  corn-ACC crush-PART sleep  IMP.
''That boy who is crushing corn has to sleep.''
+
*That boy who is crushing corn has to sleep.*
  
 
Pronouns may be modified by participles, though the result often requires circumlocutions to render sensibly in English.
 
Pronouns may be modified by participles, though the result often requires circumlocutions to render sensibly in English.
  
<pre>Nioa hapẽo    śeśačesu            śeomya zu.
+
    Nioa hapẽo    śeśačesu            śeomya zu.
I    corn-ACC crush-HAB.CAUS.PASS sleep  OPT.</pre>
+
    I    corn-ACC crush-HAB.CAUS.PASS sleep  OPT.
''I would like to sleep because I always have to crush the corn.''
+
*I would like to sleep because I always have to crush the corn.*
  
Note here that the habitual causative passive participle ''śeśačesu'' contains in it the implication that there is someone who causes the speaker to crush the corn. In the English translation we attempt to capture this with the phrase &quot;I always have to crush&quot;.
+
Note here that the habitual causative passive participle *śeśačesu* contains in it the
 +
implication that there is someone who causes the speaker to crush the corn. In the English
 +
translation we attempt to capture this with the phrase "I always have to crush".
  
Object suffixes are not attached to participles; if a pronoun would be the direct object of a participle, a full noun is used instead.
+
Object suffixes are not attached to participles; if a pronoun would be the direct object of
 +
a participle, a full noun is used instead.
  
== Stative participles ==
+
## Stative participles
  
Stative verbs have a ''stative'' participle, as well as a causative participle which uses a variation of the active and passive forms shown above.
+
Stative verbs have a *stative* participle, as well as a causative participle which uses a
 +
variation of the active and passive forms shown above.
  
{|
+
Aspect             Finite form     Stative participle
!Aspect
+
-------            ------------    -------------------
!Finite form
+
Simple             yaoya           yaoeo ("blue, which is blue")
!Stative participle
+
Simple             śeomya         śeomeo ("asleep, sleeping")
|-
 
|Simple
 
|yaoya
 
|yaoeo (&quot;blue, which is blue&quot;)
 
|-
 
|Simple
 
|śeomya
 
|śeomeo (&quot;asleep, sleeping&quot;)
 
|}
 
  
The stative participles come the closest to being pure adjectives in Praseo, especially since many of the stative verbs in Praseo correspond to ordinary adjectives in English. In many cases they can be translated as plain English adjectives.
+
The stative participles come the closest to being pure adjectives in Praseo, especially
 +
since many of the stative verbs in Praseo correspond to ordinary adjectives in English. In
 +
many cases they can be translated as plain English adjectives.
  
<pre>Hapu yaoeo čipú    daya.
+
    Hapu yaoeo čipú    daya.
Corn blue  jar-LOC is-in.</pre>
+
    Corn blue  jar-LOC is-in.
''The blue corn is in the jar.''
+
*The blue corn is in the jar.*
  
The causative aspect of a stative verb behaves as an active verb, with an active and a passive participle. These forms are built from the stem of the causative stative aspect.
+
The causative aspect of a stative verb behaves as an active verb, with an active and a
 +
passive participle. These forms are built from the stem of the causative stative aspect.
  
{|
+
Aspect             Finite form     Active participle                           Passive participle
!Aspect
+
-------            ------------    ------------------                          -------------------
!Finite form
+
Causative stative   yaoša           yaošẽ ("which colors [something] blue")     yaošesu ("which is colored blue")
!Active participle
+
Causative stative   śeomaša         śeomašẽ ("which puts [someone] to sleep")   śeomašesu ("which is put to sleep")
!Passive participle
 
|-
 
|Causative stative
 
|yaoša
 
|yaošẽ (&quot;which colors [something] blue&quot;)
 
|yaošesu (&quot;which is colored blue&quot;)
 
|-
 
|Causative stative
 
|śeomaša
 
|śeomašẽ (&quot;which puts [someone] to sleep&quot;)
 
|śeomašesu (&quot;which is put to sleep&quot;)
 
|}
 
  
<pre>Yira śeomašesu      hapẽo    śeśya ta.
+
    Yira śeomašesu      hapẽo    śeśya ta.
Boy  sleep-CAUS.PASS corn-ACC crush IMP.</pre>
+
    Boy  sleep-CAUS.PASS corn-ACC crush IMP.
''That boy who was put to sleep has to crush corn.''
+
*That boy who was put to sleep has to crush corn.*

Revision as of 11:43, 12 January 2015

% vim: ft=markdown fo=

The Praseo verb is highly inflected for tense, aspect, evidentiality, and focus, but it does not have any agreement for person, number, or any other categories. The core inflectional paradigm of the verb is supplemented by a set of particles which indicate mood and politeness.

Throughout this discussion we will use the verb *śeśya* "to crush, to grind" as paradigmatic.

  1. Morphology and semantics of the verb stem

Most Praseo verbs share a stem with a corresponding noun, and by convention the verb is described as being derived from the noun (though in many cases the direction of derivation is arguably in the other direction, or is arbitrary). All noun stems end with a vowel which indicates the noun class (see Praseo nouns), and this vowel is dropped to provide the

  • root stem* from which verbs are derived.
    1. Active verbs, stative verbs, and telicity

Praseo verbs are divided into *active* verbs and *stative* verbs. This is a lexical distinction which is not reflected anywhere in the form of the verb stem or its inflection, but it may control which forms of the verb occur and the cases that it governs. Note that the distinction between active and stative verbs is a *lexical* difference; the semantics of the verb in question may suggest which group it should belong to, but there are verbs which are arbitrarily assigned to one or the other.

  • Stative* verbs are those verbs which indicate a state which the subject is in. Many of

these verbs correspond to things which would be adjectives in English. This includes verbs such as *yaoya* "to be blue" and *śeomya* "to sleep, to be asleep". Notably, verbs which indicate emotions are always considered stative verbs, and these verbs may be transitive. However, the object of a transitive stative verb occurs in the dative rather than the accusative.

   Dusu oalú     solya.
   Bird wolf-DAT fears.
  • The bird is afraid of the wolf.*

Additionally, stative verbs do not occur in some aspects and use a different ending for causatives.

  • Active* verbs are those verbs which indicate an action which the subject undertakes. Active

verbs may be transitive or intransitive, and they don't necessarily imply motion or action, but may include any action which is conceived of as an event rather than a state. Typical active verbs are *śeśya* "to grind" and *tsipya* "to vomit".

Active verbs are further subdivided into *telic* and *atelic* verbs. The *telic* verbs are those which are conceived as having a duration with a beginning, middle, and end, while

  • atelic* verbs are considered unitary and have no internal structure. A typical telic verb

is *śenya* "to stay, remain," while a common atelic verb is *ašya* "to fall". Atelic verbs are distinguished by the fact that they don't occur in the perfective tense, but only in the imperfective.

    1. Aspectual endings

There are five different endings which may be attached to the root stem, which which express four different *aspects* of the verb.

The **simple** aspect of the verb is formed by adding *-ya* to the root stem. This ending triggers palatalization of stem-final velars and affrication of stem-final dentals (see Praseo phonology#Palatalization and Praseo phonology#Affrication).

Noun form Root stem Simple verb form


---------- -----------------

śutta śutt- śuttsya zaka zak- začya tsipa tsip- tsipya

The simple aspect refers to a single instance of an action, without reference to its telicity, distribution, or frequency. It is the most general and most commonly used aspect.

The **causative active** aspect is formed by adding *-ãya* to the root stem. This aspectual ending is only used with active verbs.

Root stem Causative verb form


-----------------

śutt- śuttãya zak- zakãya tsip- tsipãya

The causative indicates that the subject caused the object to do the action indicated by the stem. This is a valency-increasing aspect: verbs which are intransitive in the simple or habitual aspects are transitive in the causative aspect, and transitives become ditransitives:

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
   I    corn-ACC grind.
  • I grind corn.*
   Nioa yirẽoa  ma hapẽo    śeśãya.
   I    boy-ACC    corn-ACC grind-CAUSE.
  • I make the boy grind corn.*

Note that in the second example above there are two accusative arguments, the second of which is preceded by *ma*. This is discussed in more detail in Praseo syntax. Additionally, the causative active form of a verb is always considered atelic (instantaneous, event-oriented) even if the simple form of the verb is considered telic.

The **causative stative** aspect is formed by adding *-aša* to the verb stem. This aspectual ending is only used with stative verbs, but it is otherwise identical in meaning to the causative active aspect.

Root stem Causative verb form


-----------------

yao- yaoša śeom- śeomaša

The causative aspect of the stative verb is treated as an active atelic verb.

The **habitual** aspect of the verb is formed by adding *-oa* to the root stem of an active verb. Only active verbs have a habitual aspect, and the habitual form of the verb is necessarily telic. This ending triggers affrication of stem-final dentals.

Root stem Habitual verb form


-----------------

śutt- śuttsoa zak- zakoa tsip- tsipoa

The habitual aspect refers to an action which is repeated, widely distributed, or regular. In the perfective tense it has a meaning similar to the English phrase "used to".

The **habitual causative** aspect is formed by adding *-ača* to the root stem of the verb.

Root stem Habitual causative verb form


-----------------

śutt- śuttača zak- zakača tsip- tsipača

The meaning of the habitual causative is a straightforward conjunction of the habitual and causative aspects, and it indicates that someone causes someone else to undertake a habitual or regular action. It is treated as a telic verb, and like the causative active it increases the valency of the verb.

  1. Tense and evidentiality

The Praseo categories of *tense* and *evidentiality* are always conflated into a single portmanteau morpheme. Praseo distinguishes three tenses: present, preterite, and perfective. It also distinguishes three kinds of evidentiality: affirmative, negative, and reported. These endings do not vary based on the aspect of the verb. The endings for these categories are indicated in the following table:

Tense Affirmative Negative Reported


------------ --------- ---------

  • Present* śeśya śeśyatsi śeśyasa
  • Preterite* śeśyalu śeśyara śeśyao
  • Perfective* śeśyaśu śeśyatsiśu śeśyaśao
    1. Meaning and usage of the tenses

The semantic distinctions between the tenses are do not align neatly with English categories. The *present* tense is the simplest to understand: it is used to indicate all sorts of non-past actions, including future actions and actions which began in the past and are not complete in the present. In the simple aspect, it most closely correlates to the English present progressive.

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśya.
   I    corn-ACC crush-PRES.
  • I am crushing the corn.*

The *preterite* tense is used for completed past actions when considered a unitary whole. This is used for actions in the distant past whose duration or internal structure is irrelevant, as well as for all atelic past-tense verbs. It corresponds roughly to the English simple past ("I went") or past perfect ("I had gone").

   Nioa hapẽo    nači      śeśyalu.
   I    corn-ACC yesterday crush-PRET.
  • I crushed the corn yesterday.*

The *perfective* tense is used for actions which are completed at the present time, but which have a relevant duration in the past. This corresponds roughly to the English present perfect ("I have gone") or past progressive ("I was going"). When used in isolation, it usually indicates an action which has just completed. However, when used in contrast with a verb in the preterite tense, the perfective tense may indicate simultaneity in a manner similar to the English past progressive ("I was walking (perfective) and a branch fell (preterite)").

Atelic verbs do not occur in the perfective tense; all non-present atelic verbs use the preterite tense.

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśyaśu.
   I    corn-ACC crush-PERF.
  • I have crushed the corn.* or *I have finished crushing the corn.*
    1. Evidentiality

The *affirmative* and *negative* categories are used for information which the speaker personally attests to. This includes all events to which the speaker is a direct witness, but also information which the speaker considers to be beyond doubt. For example, past events which have entered into common knowledge are discussed in the past affirmative, regardless of whether the speaker was a witness to those events.

The *reported* category indicates that the speaker is giving information which is hearsay, unclear, or uncertain. The use of the reported form indicates that the speaker is not able to personally attest to the information the information, and that there may be doubt as to whether the statement is actually true.

There are complicated social dynamics involved in choosing to relate hearsay in the reported or the affirmative/negative forms. When first relating a piece of second-hand news to a new listener, Praseo speakers will always use the reported form and avoid the affirmative. The presence of a second corroborating source will sometimes suffice to give the speakers confidence to use the affirmative form, but if a third speaker can be found who corroborates the information, then all speakers will switch to the affirmative rather than the reported form. Failing to switch to the affirmative form when the other speakers switch is seen as casting doubt on their truthfulness and may provoke offense. Conversely, switching to the affirmative form too quickly may indicate to others that you are a hasty and untrustworthy person.

Non-native speakers of Praseo are generally encouraged to use the reported form of the verb to discuss events which they don't have direct knowledge of, and to follow the lead of the native Praseo speakers when they switch to the affirmative/negative forms.

  1. Focus marking

Praseo word order is very free, and focus is indicated by moving the focused element to the beginning of the utterance. Nouns do not receive any special marking when they're focused this way, but verbs have an alternation in the vowel of the verbal ending. Generally speaking, the *-a* of the aspectual ending is replaced with *-u*, and this vowel is preserved when other endings are added.

For an active verb:

Aspect Unfocused Focused


---------- --------

Simple śeśya śeśyu Causative śeśãya śeśãyu Habitual śeśoa śeśu Habitual causative śeśača śeśaču

Note that the habitual ending *-oa* here is slightly irregular, as it simplifies to just

  • -u* when focused.

For a stative verb:

Aspect Unfocused Focused


---------- --------

Simple śeomya śeomyu Causative śeomaša śeomašu

The vowel *-u* is also used when additional tense or evidentiality suffixes are added to a focused verb. The following chart illustrates, and may be contrasted with the chart above showing the unfocused tense and evidentiality markers.

Tense Affirmative Negative Reported


------------ --------- ---------

  • Present* śeśyu śeśyutsi śeśyusa
  • Preterite* śeśyulu śeśyura śeśyu
  • Perfective* śeśyuśu śeśyutsiśu śeśyuśao
  1. Object suffixes

Pronominal direct objects are expressed by a set of suffixes which attach to the end of the verb. These suffixes are always the last element of the verbal complex (excepting the modal particles discussed below, which are considered separate words).

Illustrating with the root *śeśya*:

Meaning Form


-----

crushes me śeśyaoa crushes us śeśyei crushes you (m.sg.) śeśyaśa crushes you (m.pl.) śeśyaśi crushes you (f.sg.) śeśyaśe crushes you (f.pl.) śeśyaśa crushes him śeśyala crushes them (m.pl.) śeśyali crushes her śeśyale crushes them (f.pl.) śeśyala crushes it śeśyatsu crushes them (inan.) śeśyatsi

See also Praseo pronouns#Accusative.

  1. Modal particles

Various categories of mood are indicated by utterance-final enclitics known as *modal particles*. The modal particles are not considered part of the main verb complex, because they don't necessarily adhere directly to the verb. In the event that the verb is moved to the beginning of the sentence for focus purposes, the modal particle remains utterance-final and cliticizes on the preceding word. The modal particles are:

  • ka* - **interrogative**. Simple yes-no questions are indicated by adding *ka* to the end of

the utterance. Questions which include overt question words don't require *ka*, but *ka* may optionally be added for clarity, especially if the question is complex.

   Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka?
   You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT?
  • Have you crushed the corn?*
  • ta* - **imperative**. Adding *ta* to the end of an utterance with a second-person subject

acts as an ordinary imperative equivalent to the English imperative. With first or third-person subjects, the meaning is hortative, e.g. "I must do this" or "I should do this."

   Niśa hapẽo    śeśya ta!
   You  corn-ACC crush IMP!
  • Crush the corn!*
  • ri* - **conditional**. Utterance-final *ri* is used to indicate hypothetical or

counterfactual statements.

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ri.
   I    corn-ACC crush COND.
  • I would crush the corn.*
  • zu* - **optative**. The particle *zu* indicates the optative, for statements which the

speaker desires or wishes for.

   Niśa hapẽo    śeśya zu.
   You  corn-ACC crush OPT.
  • I would like you to crush the corn.*
  • ma* - **potential**. The particle *ma* indicates actions which are possible, potential, or

allowed.

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ma.
   I    corn-ACC crush POT.
  • I could crush the corn.*

The modal particles are frequently combined to create subtler nuances of meaning. The order of the particles in this situation is not strictly specified, but there is a strong tendency for *ka* and *ta* to come first if they occur.

The most common such combination is *ka*, the interrogative, plus any of the others.

   Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ka  ri?
   You  corn-ACC crush-PERF INT COND.
  • Would you have crushed the corn?*
   Nioa hapẽo    śeśya ka  ta?
   I    corn-ACC crush INT IMP.
  • Do I have to crush the corn?*

Combinations of three or more are also possible.

   Niśa hapẽo    śeśyaśu    ma  ri   zu.
   You  corn-ACC crush-PERF POT COND OPT.
  • If only you had been able to crush the corn.*
  1. Participles

Praseo does not have a separate lexical category for adjectives. Instead, most of the functions which we associate with adjectives are filled by participles of the verb. There are three core participles: the active participle, the passive participle, and the stative participle, which also combine with the aspectual suffixes.

    1. Active and passive participles

Active (as opposed to stative) verbs all have an *active* participle, while transitive verbs also have a *passive* participle. These participles exist for all of the aspects of the active verb.

Aspect Finite form Active participle Passive participle


------------ ------------------ -------------------

Simple śeśya śeśẽ ("crushing, who crushes") śeśesu ("crushed, which is crushed") Causative active śeśãya śeśẽi ("who causes to crush") śeśẽisu ("who is caused to crush") Habitual śeśoa śeśoẽ ("who always crushes") śeśoesu ("which is always crushed") Habitual causative śeśača śeśačẽ ("who always causes to crush") śeśačesu ("who is always caused to crush")

The participles are not marked for tense or mood. Rather, they take on the tense and mood of the main verb in the sentence. Objects of participles are marked for case in the usual way, and usually come between the noun head (the subject of the participle) and the participle itself.

   Yira hapẽo    śeśẽ       śeomya ta.
   Boy  corn-ACC crush-PART sleep  IMP.
  • That boy who is crushing corn has to sleep.*

Pronouns may be modified by participles, though the result often requires circumlocutions to render sensibly in English.

   Nioa hapẽo    śeśačesu            śeomya zu.
   I    corn-ACC crush-HAB.CAUS.PASS sleep  OPT.
  • I would like to sleep because I always have to crush the corn.*

Note here that the habitual causative passive participle *śeśačesu* contains in it the implication that there is someone who causes the speaker to crush the corn. In the English translation we attempt to capture this with the phrase "I always have to crush".

Object suffixes are not attached to participles; if a pronoun would be the direct object of a participle, a full noun is used instead.

    1. Stative participles

Stative verbs have a *stative* participle, as well as a causative participle which uses a variation of the active and passive forms shown above.

Aspect Finite form Stative participle


------------ -------------------

Simple yaoya yaoeo ("blue, which is blue") Simple śeomya śeomeo ("asleep, sleeping")

The stative participles come the closest to being pure adjectives in Praseo, especially since many of the stative verbs in Praseo correspond to ordinary adjectives in English. In many cases they can be translated as plain English adjectives.

   Hapu yaoeo čipú    daya.
   Corn blue  jar-LOC is-in.
  • The blue corn is in the jar.*

The causative aspect of a stative verb behaves as an active verb, with an active and a passive participle. These forms are built from the stem of the causative stative aspect.

Aspect Finite form Active participle Passive participle


------------ ------------------ -------------------

Causative stative yaoša yaošẽ ("which colors [something] blue") yaošesu ("which is colored blue") Causative stative śeomaša śeomašẽ ("which puts [someone] to sleep") śeomašesu ("which is put to sleep")

   Yira śeomašesu       hapẽo    śeśya ta.
   Boy  sleep-CAUS.PASS corn-ACC crush IMP.
  • That boy who was put to sleep has to crush corn.*